Sir Ludwig Guttmann
Founder of the Paralympic Games

Sir Ludwig Guttmann was born on July 3, 1899 to an Orthodox, Jewish family. He was the eldest child. He joined the Accident Hospital in Konigshuttle in 1917.

In 1918, he began his studies in the medical faculty at the University of Breslau. He worked in Nazi Germany at the Jewish Hospital in Breslau, later on becoming the director.

He left in Spring 1919 to study at the University of Freiburg.

In 1924, he received his Master’s Degree. He and his family then migrated to Oxford, England in 1939. He began his research at Nuffield Department of Neurosurgery. He also founded the National Spinal Injuries Centre at Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Buckinghamshire in 1944 and was appointed as director.

In 1952, he started Stoke Mandeville Games for the disabled which grew with over 130 international competitors and it continued to grow. The Stoke Mandeville Stadium, the National Centre for Disabled Sport in the UK was developed by him alongside the hospital.

In 1956, Guttmann was awarded the Fearnley Cup, an award for outstanding contribution to the Olympic deal.

In 1961, Guttmann also founded the British Sports Association for the disabled, later known as the Disability Sports Events. He was also the inaugural President of the International Medical Society of Paraplegia.

In 1966, he was knighted by the Queen and became KBE (Knight of the Order of the British Empire.) In addition, Guttmann also received an OBE, and a CBE as well as being honoured worldwide.

Sir Ludwig Guttmann died on March 18, 1980 at the age of 80 due to a heart failure and heart attack. A hospital in Barcelona is named in his honour.

Dr. Guttmann organised the 1948 International Wheelchair Games to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics. His dream was of a world wide sports competition for people with disabilities to be held every four years as the ‘equivalent of the Olympic Games’. Twelve years later his dream became a reality.

The first Paralympic Games were held in Rome, Italy in 1960 and it involved 400 athletes from 23 countries. The earliest beginnings of the creation of the athletic games for people with disabilities can be traced back to World War II and the efforts of one man, a doctor from England named Ludwig Guttmann. He was known as the ‘father of sport for people with disabilities’. Dr. Guttmann was a strong advocate of using sports therapy to enhance the quality of life for people who were injured or wounded during World War II. The Paralympic Games are held in the summer and winter. Athletes with disabilities have competed in the winter games since 1976. The Winter Games debuted in Omskoldsvik, Sweden.

The Summer Games are the second largest sporting event in the world today with the largest being the Olympic Games. These games included amputees, the visually impaired, cerebral palsy, spinal cord injuries, muscular dystrophy and others. In 1992, the four year cycle was modified so that the Winter and Summer Paralympic Games coincide with Olympics. The skill and talent of high performance athletics and competition are evident in the performance of today’s Paralympians from all nations.

The Paralympic Summer Games have grown since 1960. The last Paralympic Summer Games were held in Beijing, China in 2008. It hosted 3,951 athletes, over 2,500 officials and representatives, 5,600 media and 30,000 volunteers. Representatives from 146 countries took part. The Paralympic Winter Games started in 1976. The competition included 12 countries and had events like Alpine Skiing, Cross Country Skiing, Ice Sledge Hockey, Wheelchair Curling and Biathlon. The Vancouver 2010 Winter Paralympic Games included 506 athletes and team officials from 44 nations.

International Paralympic Committee (IPC)

In 1982, the International Coordinating Committee of World Sport Organisations for the Disabled (ICC) was established to govern the Paralympics and to represent the Games in dialogues with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and other global organisations.

A new governing body, the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) replaced the ICC in 1992. The IPC are comprised of 100 member nations as well as the international federations that represent different disability groups.

Its vision is to enable Paralympic Athletes to achieve sporting excellence and to inspire and excite the world. Its aims are to enable:

This is the primary role of the IPC as an organisation to create the conditions for athlete empowerment through self determination.
Paralympic athletes: the primary focus of IPC’s activities, in the context of Paralympic athletes, is the development of all athletes from initiation to elite level.
To achieve sporting excellence: the goal of the sports centered organisation.
To inspire and excite the world: the external result is IPC’s contribution to a better world for all people with a disability. To achieve this, relations with external organisations and the promotion of the Paralympic movement as a whole are of prime importance.

The Paralympic Motto is ‘Spirit in Motion’. The emblem is red, blue and green. The shape of the elements symbolises the vision of IPC. The entire emblem symbolises the globe.

The Paralympic Anthem, also known as the Paralympic Hymn, is played when the Paralympic Flag is raised. It is a musical piece, “Hymn de l’Avenir” (“Anthem of the Future”) composed by Thierry Darnis. The anthem was approved by the IPC in March 1996. Australian country singer Graeme Connors wrote the lyrics for the anthem in 2001.

The Paralympic Oath is a solemn promise made by one athlete, as a representative of each of the participating Paralympic competitors; and by one judge, as a representative of each officiating Paralympic referee or other official, at the opening ceremonies of each Paralympic Games.

The athlete, from the team of the organizing country, holds a corner of the Paralympic Flag while reciting the oath:

In the name of all the competitors I promise that we shall take part in these Paralympic Games, respecting and abiding by the rules which govern them, committing ourselves to a sport without doping and without drugs, in the true spirit of sportsmanship, for the glory of sport and the honour of our teams.

The judge, also from the host nation, likewise holds a corner of the flag but takes a slightly different oath:

In the name of all the judges and officials, I promise that we shall officiate in these Paralympic Games with complete impartiality, respecting and abiding by the rules which govern them in the true spirit of sportsmanship.

The first Paralympic Oath was held at the first Paralympic Games, in Rome in 1960. The Paralympic Oath is identical to the Olympic Oath, with the exception of the words ‘Olympic’ and ‘Paralympic’. The oath was originally written by Pierre de Coubertin. The first oath (an Athlete’s Oath) was held at the Olympic Games in Antwerp in 1920. The original text by Coubertin has since been modified several times. The first Judge’s/Official’s Oath was held at the Olympic Games in Sapporo in 1972.

London 2012 Paralympic Games

This year, the Paralympic Games will be taking place in London, England. This promises to be a fun packed event as many disabled athletes will come together from various countries to compete against each other. The event will take place following the Olympics from August 29, 2012 until the September 9, 2012 at the Olympic Stadium.

It will be the first Paralympic Games for London, but the second time for them to host it. There is an estimated 166 teams expected to be there. There will be 503 events in sports for the Games ranging from Archery to Wheelchair Tennis.

London 2012 Paralympic Events
Boccia

Boccia is a precision sport, similar to bocce. The name Boccia is derived from the Latin word for boss – bottia. The sport is competed at national and international level, by athletes who require a wheelchair because of physical disability. It was originally designed to be played by people with cerebral palsy but now includes athletes with other severe disabilities affecting motor skills. In 1984 it became a Paralympic sport, and in 2008 was being practiced in over fifty countries worldwide. Boccia is governed by the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association (CPISRA) and is one of three Paralympic sports that have no counterpart in the Olympic program.

Boccia originated in Greece. Big stones were used to throw at a stone target. The game was later refined in Italy in the 16th century.
Boccia can be played by individuals, pairs, or teams of three and all events are mixed gender. The aim of the game is to throw leather balls – coloured red or blue (which side gets which is determined by a coin toss) – as close as they can to a white target ball, or jack. The jack is thrown first, then the first two regular balls are played, (first, the player who threw the jack then the opposing side), after which, the side furthest away from the jack goes next in an attempt to either get closer to the jack or knock the opposition’s ball out of the way.

In this fashion, each end will continue until one side has played all their balls, at which point, the opposing side will play their remaining balls. The balls can be moved with hands, feet, or, if the competitor’s disability is severe, with an assistive device such as a ramp. At the end of each round, or end, the referee measures the distance of the balls closest to the jack, and awards points accordingly – one point for each ball that is closer to the jack than the opponent’s closest ball. The team/player with the highest number of points at the end of play is the winner. If both teams have the same amount of points after all ends have been played, one additional end is played to determine a winner.

The number of ends and balls in each end depends on the side makeup. Individual competition consists of four ends and six balls per player per end, whilst paired competition is four ends and six balls per pair per end (three per player). Team competition is six ends, and six balls per team per end (two per player).
In pair and team events, a reserve player is allowed. Between ends a reserve can be substituted for a player during a game, but only one substitution per game is permitted.

Boccia is played on a court measuring 12.5 × 6 m with 2 m of empty space around it. The surface of the court is flat and smooth. The throwing area is divided into six rectangular throwing boxes in which the athletes must stay completely within during play. On the court is a V-shaped line over which the jack must cross for the throw to be valid. At the end of the court is the ‘dead ball container’ which balls are put in if they are thrown outside of the time limit, out of the area of play or the athlete violates a rule during his or her throw. A cross marks the position where the jack must be placed if it touches or crosses the boundary line or in the case of a tie break. The balls themselves are made of leather and are slightly larger than a tennis ball, weighing approximately 275 grams and measuring 270 mm in circumference. They are available in different grades of softness and hardness.

To be eligible to compete in boccia at national or international level, athletes must have a disability and be in a wheelchair, because of cerebral palsy, or another neurological condition that has similar effects, such as muscular dystrophy or traumatic brain injury. Players are examined to determine the extent of their disability and then assigned to a sport class, designed to allow them to compete against other athletes with a similar level of physical function.

Boccia players are assigned to one of four sport classes: depending on their functional ability:
BC1 – Players in this class throw the ball with the hand or foot. They may compete with an assistant who stays outside of the competitor’s playing box, to stabilize or adjust their playing chair and give the ball to the player when requested.

BC2 – Players in this class throw the ball with the hand. They are not eligible for assistance.
BC3 – Players in this class have very severe locomotor dysfunction in all four extremities. Players in this class have no sustained grasp or release action and although they may have arm movement, they have insufficient range of movement to propel a Boccia ball onto the court. They may use an assistive device such as a ramp to deliver the ball. They may compete with an assistant; assistants must keep their back to the court and their eyes averted from play.

BC4 – Players in this class have severe locomotor dysfunction of all four extremities as well as poor trunk control. They can demonstrate sufficient dexterity to throw the ball onto the court. Players are not eligible for assistance.

Boccia can be played on a recreational or competitive basis. Competitions are organized locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally. The international competition calendar is based on the Summer Paralympic Games quadrennial, with international regional championships in the first year, world championships in the second year, world cup in the third year, and the Paralympic games in the fourth year.

There are approximately 350 internationally-ranked boccia players.
179 athletes from 24 countries and regions attended the 2007 Boccia World Cup during May 9-19, 2007 in Vancouver, BC, Canada for their last opportunity for classification and achieve international ranking for the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing.

88 athletes from 19 countries competed at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing held 7 to 17 September. Brazil and Korea were ranked first equal over all, both countries finishing with two gold medals and one bronze medal each.

Athletes from 36 countries attended the 2010 Boccia World Championships, and 28 countries participated in the team competition. The balance of power in recent years has shifted from European dominance to a more world wide competitiveness with Brazil leading the BC4s and Korea the BC3s. The dominant force of the Mixed Team has only recently changed hands from GB to Korea but the former power houses Spain and Portugal can never be ruled out.

Cycling Track
Football 5 a side
Football 7 a side
Cycling Road

Judo

Judo (meaning “gentle way”) is a modern martial art, combat sport and Olympic sport created in Japan in 1882 by Jigoro Kano. Its most prominent feature is its competitive element, where the object is to either throw or takedown one’s opponent to the ground, immobilize or otherwise subdue one’s opponent with a grappling maneuver, or force an opponent to submit by joint locking or by executing a strangle hold or choke. Strikes and thrusts by hands and feet as well as weapons defences are a part of judo, but only in pre-arranged forms (kata) and are not allowed in judo competition or free practice (randori).
The philosophy and subsequent pedagogy developed for judo became the model for other modern Japanese martial arts that developed from koryū (traditional schools). The worldwide spread of judo has led to the development of a number of offshoots such as Sambo and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. Judo practitioners are called judoka.

The early history of judo is inseparable from its founder, Japanese polymath and educator Jigoro Kano (1860–1938), born Shinnosuke Kano (Kanō Shinnosuke). Kano was born into a relatively affluent family. His father, Jirosaku, was the second son of the head priest of the Shinto Hiyoshi shrine in Shiga Prefecture. He married Sadako Kano, daughter of the owner of Kiku-Masamune sake brewing company and was adopted by the family, changing his name to Kano, and ultimately became an official in the Bakufu government.

Jigoro Kano had an academic upbringing and, from the age of seven, he studied English, Japanese calligraphy and the Four Confucian Texts under a number of tutors. When he was fourteen, Kano began boarding at an English-medium school, Ikuei-Gijuku in Shiba, Tokyo. The culture of bullying endemic at this school was the catalyst that caused Kano to seek out a Jujutsu (training place) at which to train.

Early attempts to find a jujutsu teacher who was willing to take him on met with little success. With the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in the Meiji Restoration of 1868, jujutsu had become unfashionable in an increasingly westernised Japan. Many of those who had once taught the art had been forced out of teaching or become so disillusioned with it that they had simply given up. Nakai Umenari, an acquaintance of Kanō’s father and a former soldier, agreed to show him kata, but not to teach him. The caretaker of his father’s second house, Katagiri Ryuji, also knew jujutsu, but would not teach it as he believed it was no longer of practical use. Another frequent visitor to Kanō’s father’s house, Imai Genshiro of Kyūshin-ryū school of jujutsu, also refused. Several years passed before he finally found a willing teacher.

In 1877, as a student at the Tokyo-Kaisei school (soon to become part of the newly-founded Tokyo Imperial University), Kano learned that many jujutsu teachers had been forced to pursue alternative careers, frequently opening Seikotsu-in (traditional osteopathy practices). After inquiring at a number of these, Kano was referred to Fukuda Hachinosuke (c.1828–1880), a teacher of the Tenjin Shin’yō-ryū of jujutsu, who had a small nine mat dojo where he taught five students. Fukuda is said to have emphasized technique over formal exercise, sowing the seeds of Kano’s emphasis on free practice in Judo.

On Fukuda’s death in 1880, Kano, who had become his keenest and most able student in both randori and kata (pre-arranged forms), was given the densho (scrolls) of the Fukuda dojo. Kano chose to continue his studies at another Tenjin Shin’yō-ryū school, that of Iso Masatomo (c.1820–1881). Iso placed more emphasis on the practice of kata, and entrusted randori instruction to assistants, increasingly to Kano. Iso died in June 1881 and Kano went on to study at the dojo of Iikubo Tsunetoshi (1835–1889) of Kitō-ryū. Like Fukuda, Iikubo placed much emphasis on randori, with Kitō-ryū having a greater focus on nage-waza (throwing techniques).

Founding of the Kodokan

In February 1882, Kano founded a school and dojo at the Eisho-ji, a Buddhist temple in what was then the Shitaya ward of Tokyo (now the Higashi Ueno district of Taitōward). Iikubo, Kano’s Kitō-ryū instructor, attended the dojo three days a week to help teach and, although two years would pass before the temple would be called by the name Kodokan (“place for expounding the way”), and Kano had not yet received his Menkyo (certificate of mastery) in Kitō-ryū, this is now regarded as the Kodokan founding.

The Eisho-ji dojo was a relatively small affair, consisting of a twelve mat training area. Kano took in resident and non-resident students, the first two being Tsunejiro Tomita and Shiro Saigo. In August, the following year, the pair were granted shodan (first rank) grades, the first that had been awarded in any martial art.

Judo versus Jujutsu

Central to Kano’s vision for Judo were the principles of seiryoku zen’yō (maximum efficiency, minimum effort) and jita kyōei (mutual welfare and benefit). He illustrated the application of seiryoku zen’yō with the concept of jū yoku gō o seisu (gentleness controls hardness):

In short, resisting a more powerful opponent will result in your defeat, whilst adjusting to and evading your opponent’s attack will cause him to lose his balance, his power will be reduced, and you will defeat him. This can apply whatever the relative values of power, thus making it possible for weaker opponents to beat significantly stronger ones. This is the theory of ju yoku go o seisu.

Kano realised that seiryoku zen’yō, initially conceived as a Jujutsu concept, had a wider philosophical application. Coupled with the Confucianist-influenced jita kyōei, the wider application shaped the development of Judo from a martial art to a martial way. Kano rejected techniques that did not conform to these principles and emphasised the importance of efficiency in the execution of techniques. He was convinced that practice of Jujutsu while conforming to these ideals was a route to self-improvement and the betterment of society in general. He was, however, acutely conscious of the Japanese public’s negative perception of Jujutsu:

At the time a few bujitsu (martial arts) experts still existed but bujitsu was almost abandoned by the nation at large. Even if I wanted to teach jujitsu most people had now stopped thinking about it. So I thought it better to teach under a different name principally because my objectives were much wider than jujitsu.

Kano believed that “Jūjutsu” was insufficient to describe his art: although Jutsu means “art” or “means” it implies a method consisting of a collection of physical techniques. Accordingly, he changed the second character to dō meaning way, road or path, which implies a more philosophical context than jutsu and has a common origin with the Chinese concept of tao. Thus Kano renamed it Judo.

Sailing

Sailing is the propulsion of a vehicle and the control of its movement with large (usually fabric) foils called sails. By changing the rigging, rudder, and sometimes the keel or centre board, a sailor manages the force of the wind on the sails in order to move the vessel relative to its surrounding medium (typically water, but also land and ice) and change its direction and speed. Mastery of the skill requires experience in varying wind and sea conditions, as well as knowledge concerning sailboats themselves and a keen understanding of one’s surroundings.

While there are still some places in the world where sail-powered passenger, fishing and trading vessels are used, these craft have become rarer as internal combustion engines have become economically viable in even the poorest and most remote areas. In most countries sailing is enjoyed as a recreational activity or as a sport. Recreational sailing or yachting can be divided into racing and cruising. Cruising can include extended offshore and ocean-crossing trips, coastal sailing within sight of land, and day sailing.

The point of sail describes a sailing boat’s course in relation to the wind direction.

No sailboat can sail directly into the wind (known as being “in irons”), and for a given boat there is a minimum angle that it can sail relative to the wind; attempting to sail closer than that leads to the sails luffing and the boat will slow down and stop. This “no-go zone” (shown shaded in accompanying figure) is about 45° either side of the true wind for a modern sloop.

There are 5 main points of sail. In order from the edge of the no-go zone (or “irons”) to directly downwind they are:

• close haul (the minimum angle to the wind that the boat and its rig can manage – typically about 45° )
• close reach (between close hauled and a beam reach)
• beam reach (approximately 90° to the wind)
• broad reach (between a beam reach and running)
• running (close to directly downwind)

The sail trim on a boat is relative to the point of sail one is on: on a beam reach sails are mostly let out, on a run sails are all the way out, and close hauled sails are pulled in very tightly. Two main skills of sailing are trimming the sails correctly for the direction and strength of the wind, and maintaining a course relative to the wind that suits the sails once trimmed.

A boat can get to an upwind destination by sailing close-hauled with the wind coming from one side, then tacking (turning the boat through the eye of the wind) and sailing with the wind coming from the other side. By this method of zig-zagging into the wind it is possible to reach any upwind destination. A yacht beating to a mark directly upwind one mile (1.6 km) away will cover a distance through the water of at least 1.4 miles (2.3 km), if it can tack through an angle of 90 degrees with negligible leeway. An old adage describes beating as sailing for twice the distance at half the speed and three times the discomfort.

When beating to windward one tack may be more favorable than the other – more in the direction you wish to travel. The best strategy is to stay on the favorable tack as much as possible. If the wind shifts in your favor, called a “lift,” so much the better, then this tack is even more favorable. But if it shifts against you, called a “header,” then the opposite tack may become the more favorable course. So when sailing directly into the wind the best strategy is given by the old racing adage “Tack on a header.” This is true because a header on one tack is a lift on the other.

How closely a boat can sail into the wind depends on the boat’s design, sail shape and trim, the sea state, and the wind speed.

Typical minimum pointing angles to the true wind are as follows. Actual course over the water will be worse due to leeway.

• about 35° for modern racing yachts which have been optimized for upwind performance (like America’s Cup yachts)
• about 40 to 45° for modern cruiser-racer yachts (fast cruising yachts)
• about 50 to 60° for cruisers and workboats with inefficient keels, inefficient hull shapes, or low draught, when compared to craft designed for sailing performance, and for boats carrying two or more masts (since the forward sails adversely affect the windward ability of sails further aft when sailing upwind)
• close to 90° for square riggers and similar vessels due to the sail shape which is very ineffective when sailing upwind

Sailing close-hauled under a large amount of sail, and heeling a great deal, can induce weather helm, or a tendency for the boat to turn into the wind. This requires pulling the tiller to windward (i.e. ‘to weather’), or turning the wheel leeward, in order to counteract the effect and maintain the required course. The lee side of the hull is more under water than the weather side and the resulting shape of the submerged parts of the hull usually creates a force that pushes the bow to weather. Driving both the asymmetric heeling hull form and the angled rudder through the water produces drag that slows the boat down. If weather helm builds further, it can limit the ability of the helmsman to steer the boat, which can be turned towards but not effectively away from the wind. At more extreme angles of heel, the boat will spontaneously ’round up’ into the wind during gusts, i.e. it will turn into the wind regardless of any corrective action taken on the helm.

Any action that reduces the angle of heel of a boat that is reaching or beating to windward will help reduce excessive weather helm. Racing sailors use their body weight to bring the boat to a more upright position, but are not allowed to use “movable ballast” during a race.

Reducing or reefing the total sail area will have the same effect and many boats will sail faster with less sail in a stiff breeze due to the reduction in underwater drag. Easing the sheets on aft-most sails, such as the mainsail in a sloop or cutter can have an immediate effect, especially to help with manoeuvering. Moving or increasing sail area forward can also help, for example by raising the jib (and maybe lowering the staysail) on a cutter.
When the boat is traveling approximately perpendicular to the wind, this is called reaching. A beam reach is with the wind at right angles to the boat, a close reach is anywhere between beating and a beam reach, and a broad reach is between a beam reach and running.

For most modern sailboats, that is boats with fore-and-aft sails, reaching is the fastest way to travel. The direction of the wind is ideal when reaching because it can maximize the lift generated on the sails in the forward direction of the boat, giving the best boat speed. Also when reaching, the boat can be steered exactly in the direction that is most desirable, and the sails can be trimmed for that direction.

Reaching may, however, put the boat on a course parallel with the crests of the waves. When the waves are steep, it may be necessary to sail closer to the wind to avoid waves directly on the beam.
Sailing the boat within roughly 30 degrees either side of dead downwind is called a run. This can be the most comfortable point of sail, but requires constant attention. Loss of attention by the helmsman can lead to an accidental jibe, causing injury to the boat or crew. All on deck must be aware of, and if possible avoid, the potential arc of the boom, mainsheet and other gear in case an accidental jibe occurs during a run. A preventer can be rigged to reduce danger and damage from accidental jibes.

This is generally the most unstable point of sail, but the easiest for a novice to grasp conceptually, making it a common downfall for beginners. In stronger winds, rolling increases as there is less rolling resistance provided by the sails, as they are eased out. Also, having the sails and booms perpendicular to the boat throws weight and some wind force to that side, making the boat harder to balance. In smaller boats, death rolls can build up and lead to capsize.

Also on a run an inexperienced or inattentive sailor can easily misjudge the real wind strength since the boat speed subtracts directly from the true wind speed and makes the apparent wind less. In addition sea conditions can also falsely seem milder than they are as the waves ahead are being viewed from behind making white caps less apparent. When changing course from this point of sail to a reach or a beat, a sailboat that seemed under control can instantly become over-canvassed and in danger. Any boat over-canvassed on a run can round up, heel excessively and stop suddenly in the water. This is called broaching and it can lead to capsize, possible crew injury and loss of crew into the water.

Options for maneuvering are also reduced. On other points of sail, it is easy to stop or slow the boat by heading into the wind; there may be no such easy way out when running, especially in close quarters or when a spinnaker, whisker pole or preventer are set.

An important aspect of sailing is keeping the boat in “trim”.

• Course made well – The turning or steering of the boat vessel using the wheel or tiller to the desired course or buoy. See different points of sail. This may be a definite bearing (e.g. steer 270 degrees), or towards a landmark, or at a desired angle to the apparent wind direction.
• Trim – This is the fore and aft balance of the boat. The aim is to adjust the moveable ballast (the crew) forwards or backwards to achieve an ‘even keel’. On an upwind course in a small boat, the crew typically sit forward to reduce drag. When ‘running’, it is more efficient for the crew to sit to the rear of the boat. The position of the crew matters less as the size (and weight) of the boat increases.
• Balance – This is the port and starboard balance. The aim, once again, is to adjust weight ‘windward’ or ‘leeward’ to prevent excessive heeling. The boat moves at a faster velocity if it is flat to the water.
• Sail trim – Trimming sails is a large topic. Simply put, however, a sail should be pulled in until it fills with wind, but no further than the point where the front edge of the sail (the luff) is exactly in line with the wind. Let it out until it starts to flap, and then pull it in until it stops.
• Centreboard (Daggerboard) – If a moveable centreboard is fitted, then it should be lowered when sailing “close to the wind” but can be raised up on downwind courses to reduce drag. The centreboard prevents lateral motion and allows the boat to sail upwind. A boat with no centreboard will instead have a permanent keel, some other form of underwater foil, or even the hull itself which serves the same purpose. On a close haul the daggerboard should be fully down, and while running, over half way up.
• Together, these points are known as ‘The Five Essentials’ and constitute the central aspects of sailing.
• There are two ways to change from port tack to starboard tack: either by turning the bow through the eye of the wind, “tacking” or the stern, “jibing.” Tacking is the safer method and preferred especially when sailing upwind.

During such course changes, there is work that needs to be done. Just before tacking the command “Ready about” is given, at which point the crew must man the sheet lines which need to be changed over to the other tack and the helmsman gets ready. To execute the tack the command “Lee-ho” or “Hard-a-lee” is given. The latter is a direct order to the helmsman to push the tiller hard to the leeward side of the boat making the bow of the boat come up and quickly turn through the eye of the wind to prevent the boat being caught in irons. As the boat turns through the eye of the wind, some sails such as those with a boom and a single sheet may self-tack and need only small adjustments of sheeting points, but for jibs and other sails with separate sheets on either side, the original sheet must be loosened and the opposite sheet lines hauled in and set quickly and properly for the new point of sail.
Jibing is often necessary to change course when sailing off the wind or downwind. It is a more dangerous maneuver because booms must be controlled as the sails catch the new wind direction from astern. An uncontrolled jibe can happen suddenly by itself when sailing downwind if the helmsman is not paying attention to the wind direction and can be very dangerous as the main boom will sweep across the cockpit very quickly and with great force.

Before jibing the command “Ready to jibe” is given. The crew gets ready at their positions. If any sails are constrained with preventers or whisker poles these are taken down. The command “Jibe-ho” is given to execute the turn. The boomed sails must be hauled in, made fast before the stern reaches the eye of the wind, so that they are amidships, and controlled as the stern passes through the wind, and then let out quickly under control and adjusted to the new point of sail.

An important safety aspect of sailing is to adjust the amount of sail to suit the wind conditions. As the wind speed increases the crew should progressively reduce the amount of sail. On a small boat with only jib and mainsail this is done by furling the jib and by partially lowering the mainsail, a process called ‘reefing the main’.

Reefing means reducing the area of a sail without actually changing it for a smaller sail. Ideally reefing does not only result in a reduced sail area but also in a lower centre of effort from the sails, reducing the heeling moment and keeping the boat more upright.

There are three common methods of reefing the mainsail:

• Slab reefing, which involves lowering the sail by about one-quarter to one-third of its luff length and tightening the lower part of the sail using an outhaul or a pre-loaded reef line through a cringle at the new clew, and hook through a cringle at the new tack.
• In-mast (or on-mast) roller-reefing. This method rolls the sail up around a vertical foil either inside a slot in the mast, or affixed to the outside of the mast. It requires a mainsail with either no battens, or newly-developed vertical battens.
• In-boom roller-reefing, with a horizontal foil inside the boom. This method allows for standard- or full-length horizontal battens.

Mainsail furling systems have become increasingly popular on cruising yachts, as they can be operated shorthanded and from the cockpit, in most cases. However, the sail can become jammed in the mast or boom slot if not operated correctly. Mainsail furling is almost never used while racing because it results in a less efficient sail profile. The classical slab-reefing method is the most widely used. Mainsail furling has an additional disadvantage in that its complicated gear may somewhat increase weight aloft. However, as the size of the boat increases, the benefits of mainsail roller furling increase dramatically.
An old saying goes, “The first time you think of reducing sail you should,” and correspondingly, “When you think you are ready to take out a reef, have a cup of tea first.”

Sail trimming is a large subject and a matter of debate. The most basic control of the sail consists of setting its angle relative to the wind. The control line that accomplishes this is called a “sheet.” If the sheet is too loose the sail will flap in the wind, an occurrence that is called “luffing.” Optimum sail angle can be approximated by pulling the sheet in just so far as to make the luffing stop. Finer controls adjust the overall shape of the sail.

Two or more sails are frequently combined to maximize the smooth flow of air. The sails are adjusted to create a smooth laminar flow over the sail surfaces. This is called the “slot effect”. The combined sails fit into an imaginary aerofoil outline, so that the most forward sails are more in line with the wind, whereas the more aft sails are more in line with the course followed. The combined efficiency of this sail plan is greater than the sum of each sail used in isolation.

More detailed aspects include specific control of the sail’s shape, e.g.:

• reefing, or reducing the sail area in stronger wind
• altering sail shape to make it flatter in high winds
• raking the mast when going upwind (to tilt the sail towards the rear, this being more stable)
• providing sail twist to account for wind speed differential and to spill excess wind in gusty conditions
• gibbing or lowering a sail

Hull trim is the adjustment of a boat’s loading so as to change its fore-and-aft attitude in the water. In small boats, it is done by positioning the crew. In larger boats the weight of a person has less effect on the hull trim, but it can be adjusted by shifting gear, fuel, water, or supplies. Different hull trim efforts are required for different kinds of boats and different conditions. Here are just a few examples: In a lightweight racing dinghy like a Thistle, the hull should be kept level, on its designed water line for best performance in all conditions. In many small boats, weight too far aft can cause drag by submerging the transom, especially in light to moderate winds. Weight too far forward can cause the bow to dig into the waves. In heavy winds, a boat with its bow too low may capsize by pitching forward over its bow (pitch-pole) or dive under the waves (submarine). On a run in heavy winds, the forces on the sails tend to drive a boat’s bow down, so the crew weight is moved far aft.

When a ship or boat leans over to one side under wind pressure, from the action of waves or from the centrifugal force of a turn, it is said to ‘heel’. A sailing boat that is over canvassed and heeling over beyond a certain angle sails less efficiently.

When a vessel heels, the buoyancy of that part of the hull which is being submerged acts to balance the heeling force. A weighted keel provides additional force to right the boat. In some high-performance racing yachts, the angle of the keel can be changed to provide additional righting force: such keels are called canting keels. The crew may move onto the high (upwind) side of the boat, called hiking, which changes the centre of gravity. They can trapeze if the boat is designed for this.

The underwater shape of the hull relative to the sails may make the boat turn upwind when it heels excessively: this can reduce the force on the sails, and so allow the boat to right itself. It is known as rounding up, and can lead to difficulties in controlling the vessel if over canvassed. A boat can be turned upwind in gusts to produce the same effect, or wind can be spilled from the sails by ‘sheeting out’, or loosening them. Sail shape can be flattened, for example by tightening the downhaul.
If a sailing vessel heels too much, the real solution is to reduce the sail area, by removing and/or reefing sails.

Raising the centreboard can reduce heeling, which can be surprising, but it is not an ideal solution as it only works by increasing leeway. As a sailing boat heels further over, wind spills from the tops of the sails, so that an equilibrium angle may be reached. This may not be satisfactory if the angle is so great that rounding up makes the boat uncontrollable or if the roughness of the sea due to the wind, when combined with an extreme angle of heel makes progress untenable. If however a boat heels beyond a certain point of stability, it can capsize.

Yachts with heavy keels may need a combined effect of wind- and wave-induced heeling to put the tip of the mast so far into the water that they go beyond their point of negative stability and roll. Depending on their stability when floating deck-down, when combined with the roughness of the sea tending to disrupt this, they may remain inverted or self-right themselves in this extreme case. Dinghies and other vessels without a weighted keel, including open boats and many historic vessels, are easier to capsize. If sufficient buoyancy has been built in, as it should have in modern sailing dinghies, the craft may fill with water but still not sink. This may not be true for older vessels, or those where the buoyancy structures have not been properly maintained.

Sailing boats with one hull are “monohulls”, those with two are “catamarans”, and those with three are “trimarans”. A boat is turned by a rudder, which itself is controlled by a tiller or a wheel, while at the same time adjusting the sheeting angle of the sails. Smaller sailing boats often have a stabilising, raisable, underwater fin called a centerboard, dagger board, or leeboard such as used on the Puddle Duck Racer; larger sailing boats have a fixed (or sometimes canting) keel. As a general rule, the former are called dinghies, the latter keelboats. However, up until the adoption of the Racing Rules of Sailing, any vessel racing under sail was considered a yacht, be it a multi-masted ship-rigged vessel (such as a sailing frigate), a sailboard (more commonly referred to as a windsurfer) or remote-controlled boat, or anything in between.

Multihulls use flotation and/or weight positioned away from the centre line of the sailboat to counter the force of the wind. This is in contrast to heavy ballast that can account for up to 90% (in extreme cases like AC boats) of the weight of a monohull sailboat. In the case of a standard catamaran there are two similarly-sized and -shaped slender hulls connected by beams, which are sometimes overlaid by a deck superstructure. Another catamaran variation is the proa. In the case of trimarans, which have an unballasted centre hull similar to a monohull, two smaller amas are situated parallel to the centre hull to resist the sideways force of the wind. The advantage of multihull sailboats is that they do not suffer the performance penalty of having to carry heavy ballast, and their relatively lesser draft reduces the amount of drag, caused by friction and inertia, when moving through the water.

One of the most common dinghy hulls in the world is the Laser hull. It was designed by Bruce Kirby in 1971 and unveiled at the New York boat show (1971). It was designed with speed and simplicity in mind. The Laser is 13 feet 10.5 inches long and a 12.5 foot water line and 76 square feet (7.1 m2) of sail.

If a boat has two masts, it may be a schooner, a ketch, or a yawl, if it is rigged fore-and-aft on all masts. A schooner may have any number of masts provided the second from the front is the tallest (called the “main mast”). In both a ketch and a yawl, the foremost mast is tallest, and thus the main mast, while the rear mast is shorter, and called the mizzen mast. The difference between a ketch and a yawl is that in a ketch, the mizzen mast is forward of the rudderpost (the axis of rotation for the rudder), while a yawl has its mizzen mast behind the rudderpost. In modern parlance, a brigantine is a vessel whose forward mast is rigged with square sails, while the after mast is rigged fore-and-aft. A brig is a vessel with two masts both rigged square.

As one gets into three or more masts the number of combinations rises and one gets barques, barquentines, and full rigged ships.

A spinnaker is a large, full sail that is only used when sailing off wind either reaching or downwind, to catch the maximum amount of wind.

SkySails are sailing freighter ships. Speed sailor Dave Culp strongly introduced his OutLeader kite sail for speed sailing. Malcolm Phillips invents an advanced sailing technique using high altitude kites and kytoon. With modern technology, “wings”, that is rigid sails, may be used in place of fabric sails. An example of this would be the International C-Class Catamaran Championship and the yacht USA 17 that won the 2010. Such rigid sails are typically made of thin plastic fabric held stretched over a frame.

Some non-traditional rigs capture energy from the wind in a different fashion and are capable of feats that traditional rigs are not, such as sailing directly into the wind. One such example is the wind turbine boat, also called the windmill boat, which uses a large windmill to extract energy from the wind, and a propeller to convert this energy to forward motion of the hull. A similar design, called the autogyro boat, uses a wind turbine without the propeller, and functions in a manner similar to a normal sail. A more recent (2010) development is a cart that uses wheels linked to a propeller to “sail” dead downwind at speeds exceeding wind speed.

Sailors use traditional nautical terms for the parts of or directions on a vessel: starboard (right), port or larboard (left), forward or fore (front), aft or abaft (rearward), bow (forward part of the hull), stern (aft part of the hull), and beam (the widest part). Vertical spars are masts; horizontal spars are booms (if they can hit the sailor), yards, gaffs (if they are too high to reach) or poles (if they cannot hit the sailor).

In most cases, rope is the term used only for raw material. Once a section of rope is designated for a particular purpose on a vessel, it generally is called a line, as in outhaul line or dock line. A very thick line is considered a cable. Lines that are attached to sails to control their shapes are called sheets, as in mainsheet. If a rope is made of wire, it maintains its rope name as in ‘wire rope’ halyard.
Lines (generally steel cables) that support masts are stationary and are collectively known as a vessel’s standing rigging, and individually as shrouds or stays. The stay running forward from a mast to the bow is called the forestay or headstay. Stays running aft are backstays or after stays.

Moveable lines that control sails or other equipment are known collectively as a vessel’s running rigging. Lines that raise sails are called halyards while those that strike them are called downhauls. Lines that adjust (trim) the sails are called sheets. These are often referred to using the name of the sail they control (such as main sheet, or jib sheet). Sail trim may also be controlled with smaller lines attached to the forward section of a boom such as a Cunningham; a line used to hold the boom down is called a vang, or a kicker in the United Kingdom. A topping lift is used to hold a boom up in the absence of sail tension. Guys are used to control the ends of other spars such as spinnaker poles.

Lines used to tie a boat up when alongside a dock are called docklines, docking cables or mooring warps. In dinghies the single line from the bow is referred to as the painter.

Some lines are referred to as ropes:

• a bell rope (to ring the bell),
• a bolt rope (attached to the edge of a sail for extra strength),
• a foot rope (on old square riggers for the sailors to stand on while reefing or furling the sails), and
• A tiller rope (to temporarily hold the tiller and keep the boat on course). A rope is what keeps an anchor attached to the boat when the anchor is in use. It may be chain, rope, or a combination of the two.

Walls are called bulkheads or ceilings, while the surfaces referred to as ceilings on land are called ‘overheads’. Floors are called ‘soles’ or decks. The toilet is traditionally called the ‘head’, the kitchen is the galley. When lines are tied off, this may be referred to as ‘made fast’ or ‘belayed.’ Sails in different sail plans have unchanging names, however. For the naming of sails, see sail-plan.

Alongside trimming the sails and steering on various points of sail, knots are among the most important things a sailor needs to know. Although only a few are required, the bowline in particular is essential. By also learning the clove hitch and “round turn and two half hitches,” one can easily cope with all of the knot requirements of a boat. A more complete grasp of knot-tying includes mastery of the following knots:

Bowline — used to form a fixed loop at the end of a rope
Clove hitch — securing lines running along a series of posts
Round turn and two half hitches — secure the end of a rope to a fixed object
Rolling hitch — rigging a stopper to relax the tension on a sheet
Figure of eight — General-purpose stopper knot
Stopper knots — keeps the line from slipping out of things
Reef knot — joining two ends of a single line to bind around an object
Sheet bend — joining two ropes of different diameters
Cleat “knot” — attaching a rope or line to a cleat, such as at a dock
Additional knots are available in the list of knots.

The essence of knots used in the day-to-day work of sailing is that they are easy to tie, secure when tied and, equally importantly, easy to untie. Even experienced sailors may forget their knots if they are not performed on a regular basis. Forgetting how to tie an important knot can damage a boat or cause injury.

Every vessel in coastal and offshore waters is subject to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (the COLREGS). On inland waterways and lakes other similar regulations, such as CEVNI in Europe, may apply. In some sailing events, such as the Olympic Games, which are held on closed courses where no other boating is allowed, specific racing rules such as the Racing Rules of Sailing (RRS) may apply. Often, in club racing, specific club racing rules, perhaps based on RRS, may be superimposed onto the more general regulations such as COLREGS or CEVNI.

In general, regardless of the activity, every sailor must
Maintain a proper lookout at all times
Adjust speed to suit the conditions
Know whether to ‘stand on’ or ‘give way’ in any close-quarters situation.
The stand-on vessel must hold a steady course and speed but be prepared to take late avoiding action to prevent an actual collision if the other vessel does not do so in time. The give-way vessel must take early, positive and obvious avoiding action, without crossing ahead of the other vessel. (Rules 16-17)
If an approaching vessel remains on a steady bearing, and the range is decreasing, then a collision is likely. (Rule 7)

This can be checked with a hand-bearing compass.
The sailing vessel on port tack gives way to the sailing vessel on starboard tack. (Rule 12)
If both sailing vessels are on the same tack, the windward boat gives way to the leeward one (Rule 12)
If a vessel on port tack is unable to determine the tack of the other boat, she should be prepared to give way (Rule 12)
An overtaking vessel must keep clear of the vessel being overtaken (Rule 13)
Sailing vessels must give way to vessels engaged in fishing, those not under command, those restricted in their ability to manoeuvre and should avoid impeding the safe passage of a vessel constrained by her draft. (Rule 18)
The COLREGS go on to describe the lights to be shown by vessels under way at night or in restricted visibility. Specifically, for sailing boats, red and green sidelights and a white sternlight are required, although for vessels under 7 metres (23.0 ft) in length, these may be substituted by a torch or white all-round lantern. (Rules 22 & 25)
Sailors are required to be aware not only of the requirements for their own boat, but of all the other lights, shapes and flags that may be shown by other vessels, such as those fishing, towing, dredging, diving etc., as well as sound signals that may be made in restricted visibility and at close quarters, so that they can make decisions under the COLREGS in good time, should the need arise. (Rules 32 – 37)

In addition to the COLREGS, CEVNI and/or any specific racing rules that apply to a sailing boat, there are also
The IALA International Association of Lighthouse Authorities standards for lateral marks, lights, signals, and buoyage and rules designed to support safe navigation.

The SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) regulations, specifically Chapter V, which became mandatory for all leisure craft users of the sea from 1 July 2002. These regulations place the obligations for safety on the owners and operators of any boat including sailboats. They specify the safety equipment needed, the emergency procedures to be used appropriate to the boat’s size and its sailing range, and requirements for passage planning with regard to weather and safety.

Licensing regulations vary widely across the world. While boating on international waters does not require any license, a license may be required to operate a vessel on coastal waters or inland waters. Some jurisdictions require a license when a certain size is exceeded (e.g., a length of 20 meters), others only require licenses to pilot passenger ships, ferries or tugboats. For example, the European Union issues the International Certificate of Competence, which is required to operate pleasure craft in most inland waterways within the union. The United States in contrast has no licensing, but instead has voluntary certification organizations such as the American Sailing Association. These US certificates are often required to charter a boat, but are not required by any federal or state law.

Sailboat racing generally fits into one of two categories:
Class – Where all the boats are substantially similar, and the first boat to finish wins. (e.g.470, 49er, Contender, Farr 40, Laser, Lido 14, RS Feva, Soling, Star, Thistle, etc.)

Handicap – Where boats of different types sail against each other and are scored based on their handicaps which are calculated either before the start or after the finish. (e.g. Fastnet Race, Commodore’s Cup, Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race, Bermuda Race, etc.) The two most common handicap systems are the IRC and the Portsmouth Yardstick, while the Performance Handicap Racing Fleet (PHRF) is very common in the U.S.A.

Class racing can be further subdivided. Each class has its own set of class rules, and some classes are more restrictive than others.
In a strict one-design class the boats are essentially identical. Examples include the 29er, J/24, Laser, and RS Feva.

At the other end of the extreme are the development classes based on a box-rule. The box-rule might specify only a few parameters such as maximum length, minimum weight, and maximum sail area, thus allowing creative engineering to develop the fastest boat within the constraints. Examples include the Moth (dinghy), the A Class Catamaran, and the boats used in the America’s Cup, Volvo Ocean Race, and Barcelona World Race.

Many classes lie somewhere in between strict one-design and box rule. These classes allow some variation, but the boats are still substantially similar. For instance, both wood and fiberglass hulls are allowed in the Albacore, Wayfarer, and Fireball classes, but the hull shape, weight, and sail area are tightly constrained.

Sailboat racing ranges from single person dinghy racing to large boats with 10 or 20 crew and from small boats costing a few thousand dollars to multi-million dollar America’s Cup or Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race campaigns. The costs of participating in the high end large boat competitions make this type of sailing one of the most expensive sports in the world. However, there are inexpensive ways to get involved in sailboat racing, such as at community sailing clubs, classes offered by local recreation organizations and in some inexpensive dinghy and small catamaran classes. Additionally high schools and colleges may offer sailboat racing programs through the Interscholastic Sailing Association (in the USA) and the Intercollegiate Sailing Association (in the USA and some parts of Canada). Under these conditions, sailboat racing can be comparable to or less expensive than sports such as golf and skiing. Sailboat racing is one of the few sports in which people of all ages and genders can regularly compete with and against each other.

Most sailboat and yacht racing is done in coastal or inland waters. However, in terms of endurance and risk to life, ocean races such as the Volvo Ocean Race, the solo VELUX 5 Oceans Race, and the non-stop solo Vendée Globe, rate as some of the most extreme and dangerous sporting events. Not only do participants compete for days with little rest, but an unexpected storm, a single equipment failure, or collision with an ice floe could result in the sailboat being disabled or sunk hundreds or thousands of miles from search and rescue.

The sport of Sailboat racing is governed by the International Sailing Federation, and the rules under which competitors race are the Racing Rules of Sailing, which can be found on the ISAF web site.

Sailing for pleasure can involve short trips across a bay, day sailing, coastal cruising, and more extended offshore or ‘blue-water’ cruising. These trips can be singlehanded or the vessel may be crewed by families or groups of friends. Sailing vessels may proceed on their own, or be part of a flotilla with other like-minded voyagers. Sailing boats may be operated by their owners, who often also gain pleasure from maintaining and modifying their craft to suit their needs and taste, or may be rented for the specific trip or cruise. A professional skipper and even crew may be hired along with the boat in some cases. People take cruises in which they crew and ‘learn the ropes’ aboard craft such as tall ships, classic sailing vessels and restored working boats.

Cruising trips of several days or longer can involve a deep immersion in logistics, navigation, meteorology, local geography and history, fishing lore, sailing knowledge, general psychological coping, and serendipity. Once the boat is acquired it is not all that expensive an endeavor, often much less expensive than a normal vacation on land. It naturally develops self reliance, responsibility, economy, and many other useful skills. Besides improving sailing skills, all the other normal needs of everyday living must also be addressed. There are work roles that can be done by everyone in the family to help contribute to an enjoyable outdoor adventure for all.

A style of casual coastal cruising called gunkholing is a popular summertime family recreational activity. It consists of taking a series of day sails to out of the way places and anchoring overnight while enjoying such activities as exploring isolated islands, swimming, fishing, etc. Many nearby local waters on rivers, bays, sounds, and coastlines can become great natural cruising grounds for this type of recreational sailing. Casual sailing trips with friends and family can become lifetime bonding experiences.

Long-distance voyaging, such as that across oceans and between far-flung ports, can be considered the near-absolute province of the cruising sailboat. Most modern yachts of 25-55 feet long, propelled solely by mechanical power plants, cannot carry the fuel sufficient for a point-to-point voyage of even 250-500 miles without needing to resupply; but a well-prepared sail-powered yacht of similar length is theoretically capable of sailing anywhere its crew is willing to guide it. Even considering that the cost benefits are offset by a much reduced cruising speed, many people traveling distances in small boats come to appreciate the more leisurely pace and increased time spent on the water.

Since the solo circumnavigation of Joshua Slocum in the 1890s, long-distance cruising under sail has inspired thousands of otherwise normal people to explore distant seas and horizons. The important voyages of Robin Lee Graham, Eric Hiscock, Don Street and others have shown that, while not strictly racing, ocean voyaging carries with it an inherent sense of competition, especially that between man and the elements. Such a challenging enterprise requires keen knowledge of sailing in general as well as maintenance, navigation (especially celestial navigation), and often even international diplomacy (for which an entire set of protocols should be learned and practiced). But one of the great benefits to sailboat ownership is that one may at least imagine the type of adventure that the average affordable powerboat could never accomplish.

Powerlifting
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